Closing reflections on the Iliad
Actors and musicians love applause, perhaps a thunderous
standing
ovation with several encores. But there's an even greater
tribute: silence. When an audience is so moved that it
feels that
to say anything at all, and that even to make a sound would
spoil the
perfection of what they've seen and heard--that's the ultimate
performance.
In the original, or in a good translation, one feels like
this
with Homer. The closing scenes of the Iliad are among the
most
moving in all of literature and one understands why Keats used
the "silent, on a peak in Darien" line.
Some of you, I think, did see what makes the Iliad such a
magical work, and, just maybe, you were moved close to
tears.
It's interesting that the poem can have this affect on people
who live
many centuries after it was written--and people who know the end
already!
For others, the poem was simply a struggle. If that's
you,
please come back to this book some time when you are out of
school and
have time for more relaxed reading. Perhaps try a
different
translation. There are some real treasures hidden in this
book,
and you'll find something knew each time you come back to it: a
remarkable product for a dark age!
Homer's poems look back from the Dark Ages to a heroic
past--but they point also to the glorious Greek future around
the
corner.
The development of the Polis
The re-emergence of a great civilization in Greece is tied
closely to the emergence of the polis, the city-state form of
political
organization that dominated Greece until the rise of Philip and
Alexander. These city-states differed considerably from
one
another, but they tended to have some common features. For
one,
there was an acropolis, a "high city," initially established
because it
was easy to defend, but, in many instances the cultural center
as well:
that's where the temples were built.
In addition, each city-state featured an "agora," a
marketplace, where people from the surrounding farming community
would
gather to buy and sell--and, as we will see later, to
talk.
Athens, with it's population of 200,00 or so, was
unusual. Most city states were smaller, with perhaps a few
thousand people. The Greeks established these city-states
in many
places: on islands, on the west coast of present-day Turkey, and
in
southern Italy. The most important of the city-states in
Greece
proper were Athens, Thebes, Corinth and, that particular
fascinating polis,
Sparta.
The Spartan image
The Spartan image today is almost magical, conjuring up
images
of a nearly unsurpassed warrior people. We make movies
like 300
Spartans and nick-name our athletic teams "Spartans."
The Spartans were fascinating to people of the ancient world
too--a good thing for us because otherwise we would know very
little
about them. We have almost no records left by the Spartans
themselves--for reasons that will become apparent shortly.
Part of the fascination of Sparta involves what
Spartan
critics view as an irony of
Spartan history. The Spartans developed a magnificent
fighting
machine to ensure their freedom. They ended up using their
superior fighting skills to conquer and enslave others--and, in
a way,
they ended up enslaving themselves. Those inclined to view
Sparta more
sympathetically might argue while the Spartan political and
social
systems contained many unusual features, they were well-suited
for
maintaining the stability of the Spartan state.
Sparta during the Mycenaean period
Sparta should be already familiar to you from the pages of
the
Iliad. Sparta is the city of Menelaos, a city apparently
important, though perhaps not quite so important as Mycenae, the
city
of Agamemnon. Greek tradition indicates that Sparta was one of
those
cities that fell to the Dorian invaders around 1120 BC, and the
archaeological evidence would tend to support that
tradition.
Sparta would rise again as a Dorian city, first dominating the
immediate area (Laconia) and then much of the Peloponnesian
peninsula.
Dorian Sparta
Sparta's rise was certainly not a story of unbroken
successes. Herodotus tells us (1:65-68) that when
campaigning
against Arcadia, the Spartans sent message to the Delphic
oracle.
The oracle said they wouldn't take all Arcadia, but that Apollo
would give
them Tegea "to dance on with their feet and to measure with a
rope." They trusted in Apollo (the fools) and attacked:
only to
have many of their men captured. And, sure enough, the
captives,
roped together in a long line, were led "dancing" through Tegea
and, in
a way, measuring it with their rope.
Argos, another Dorian city, was every bit a match for Sparta
up to this point. Herodotus tells us a story about the
attempts
of the Argives and Spartans to take Thyrea. To settle the
dispute, 300
Argives were selected to fight 300 Spartans. All died
except one
Spartan, Othryades, who later killed himself, feeling it a
disgrace to
be the only survivor. But note that Argives and Spartans
are here
depicted as extraordinarily evenly matched.
Another tough struggle was the war fought with Messenia,
Sparta's Peloponnesian neighbor to the west (730-710). The
stories of the war have a legendary rather than historical
feel.
Supposedly, the Messenian king was told that sacrificing a
virgin would
ensure victory, and he was going to sacrifice his
daughter. Her
boyfriend spread the rumor she wasn't a virgin, and the angered
king
simply murdered her rather than making her a sacrifice. He
was
troubled by dreams and killed himself.
Eventually victorious, the Spartans turned the Messenians
into
state-owned slaves, what the Spartans called helots.
It was a peculiar kind of slavery. The helots worked
the
agricultural lands controlled by the Spartans, though they could
own
property of their own. Strangely, the Spartans apparently
had a
custom of declaring war from time to time on their own slaves,
and, in
general, the helots were treated harshly.
And Sparta was in a difficult situation. The Argives
continue to stir up trouble, defeating Sparta in 668 BC.
In 650
or so, the Messenians revolted. The Spartans put the
revolt down,
but it was clear that something had to be done.
Ultimately, the Spartans reduced the peoples immediately
around
them to the status of perioikoi (dwellers around), free men, but
dominated by Sparta in terms of foreign policy. But what to do
about
the many helots who (apparently) outnumbered the Spartans by as
much as
10:1?
Lycurgus and the Spartan political system
Later Greeks attributed all of Sparta's reforms to a man
named
Lycurgus who, if real, lived during the 6th century BC.
Lycurgus
probably was a real figure--and the reforms really did happen,
though they weren't necessarily all from Lycurgus. So what
exactly is this "Lycurgan" system?
First of all, Sparta gets a conservative political system,
well-designed for stability. Later Greeks admired Sparta's
"mixed" constitution, a system that combined the best of
monarchy,
democracy, and aristocracy.
The democratic element was the Apella, the Spartan
assembly. Spartan fighting men in the Apella had the
ultimate say
in Spartan affairs. But there was no debate in the Apella:
just a
thumbs up, thumbs down vote. Or, rather, a voices up,
voices down
vote--because whatever side yelled the loudest was judged to
have won
on any particular issue. Want to go to war with
Argos? Yell
as loud as you can. Don't want to go to war?
Yell.
The day is carried by whoever generates the most decibels.
The aristocratic element was the Gerousia, 28 old men plus
the
two kings who were the deliberative body of Sparta. They
were the
ones who decided what questions would be presented to the
Apella.
The royal element: two kings. Yep: two kings.
Again, a check-and-balance system. Royal authority isn't
going
to grow too great.
A further check on royal authority, the ephors.
"Ephor"
comes from "epi horao" words for looking over. They served
as
overseers: five men elected annually (and who couldn't be
reelected)
who mediated between the two kings and who had responsibilities
to make
sure the laws were followed.
The Spartan political system was much admired by figures
like
Plato and Aristotle, and it does seem to have served Sparta
well. But a
good political system wasn't enough. The Spartans needed
an
effective social system as well.
The Spartan social system
The lifestyle of Spartan men was designed to produce
warriors. And if you didn't have the aptitude to be a
warrior,
there was no need to worry: you didn't make it. Any baby
boy who
didn't pass the initial health inspection by the Spartan ephors
was
simply killed.
Spartan boys left home at the age of 7, and, for the next years
of
their lives, they trained constantly in all of those skills
useful to
good soldiers. They were taught to read and write--and
sing! And they were taught discipline and
self-denial. They
lived what we still call a "Spartan" lifestyle: no frills at
all.
A visiting Athenian said that one taste of Spartan food and you
knew
why Spartans didn't care whether they lived or died in battle.
Spartan boys were taught to steal--but that it was a disgrace to
be
caught. Once, so the story goes, a Spartan boy had stolen a
fox.
He was about to be caught, so he hid it under his robe.
The fox
began to bite. He didn't utter a sound. It continued
to
bite. Only when he dropped dead of his bites was the fox
discovered. That's discipline!
Plutarch said the Spartans' were the only people in the
world
for whom warfare was a relief from training. Perhaps
for
some of our special forces, this might to a certain extent be
true as
well.
In general in military societies, the status of women goes down. This was not true in Sparta. Women tended to run things--so much so that other Greeks disapproved. "Why is it that Spartan women are the only women in Greece who rule men?" asked a disparaging Athenian woman. The Spartan queen Gorgo replied, "Because Spartan women are the only ones who give birth to men.
Plutarch tells us some rather strange stories about Spartan
women and about Spartan marriage customs. He tells us that
Spartan girls were expected to be as fit as Spartan boys--so
that they
could grow up to bear healthy soldiers. He tells us that,
at
certain festivals, the Spartan girls danced naked in front of
the me,
singing the praises of those who had distinguished themselves
for
courage, etc. and mocking those who hadn't. He says that
this
wasn't at all shameful, but that it was an incentive to the
young women
to keep themselves fit--an an incentive for the men to find a
wife!
And, speaking of finding a wife, Plutarch also says some
very
strange things about Spartan marriage. He tells us that
Spartan
women shaved their heads before a "wedding" which consisted of
being
carried off by their husband to a darkened room where one
couldn't even
see faces clearly. The men left their honeymoon suite
before
day-break to return to the barracks. Thus, said
Plutarch,
Spartan men and women sometimes had children before they had
ever
clearly seen each other's faces!
Because Spartans devoted themselves to much to war, they
made
few contributions to culture. Here's a poem from the one
great
Spartan poet:
It is a beautiful thing when a good man falls and dies fighting for his country.
The worst pain is leaving one's city and fertile fields for the life of a beggar,
wandering with mother, old father, little children, and wedded wife.
The man beaten by need and odious poverty is detested everywhere he goes,
a disgrace to his family and noble appearance, trailed by dishonor and evil.
If no one takes care of the wanderer or gives him honor, respect, or pity,
we must fight to the death for our land and children, giving no thought to lengthening life.
Fight in a stubborn, close array, my boys! Never waver or retreat!
Feel your anger swell. There is no place in combat for love of life.
Older soldiers, whose knees are not so light, need you to stand and protect them.
An aging warrior cut down in the vanguard of battle disgraces the young. His head
is white, his beard is grey, and now he is spilling his powerful spirit in dust,
naked, clutching his bloody groin: a sight for shame and anger. But youthful
warriors always look good, until the blossom withers. Men gape
at them and women sigh, and dying in combat they are handsome still.
Now is the time for a man to stand, planting his feet and biting his lip.
--From Tyrtaeus of Sparta. As reproduced in Early Greek Lyric Poetry, trans. David Mulroy (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 48-49.
Yep. Even Spartan poetry was designed for a warrior
society.
The Spartans also left us some famous "laconic" phrases
(Laconia
is the region around Sparta). A laconic phrase is short
and to
the point. Examples:
1. When Spartan men went to battle, they'd be handed a
shield and
with it two words from their mom or wife: "with it or on
it."
Come back with your shield victorious or on your shield dead!
2. After a famine, one of Sparta's allies needed
relief.
They made a long speech to the Spartans explaining what they
wanted. The Spartans told them the speech was so long
that, by
the time they got to the end, the Spartans had forgotten what
they
wanted in the first place. The allies got the idea and
tried
again. They held up a sack and said, "The sack needs
grain." Much better, said the Spartans. But you
could have
shortened it more. Just hold up the sack and say, "needs
grain"
Clever, but but these sayings are not all that important.
Sparta's real importance, their contribution to the Greek dream,
the
example of what a superbly disciplined lifestyle can do. And
it's
Spartan discipline that makes them remembered. We think it
perfectly appropriate to nick-name athletic teams
Spartans. We've
got the Michigan State Spartans, the Spearfish Spartans, the San
Juan
Spartans, the Wessington Springs Spartans and lots more.
You
don't hear of athletic teams called "The Athenians," "The
Thebans," or
"The Corinthians." And, of course, Lesbians wouldn't do at
all.